Chapter Four: text review
After reading chapter four in the textbook, I have learned so much. I had learned there is a difference between a learning outcome and a learning objective when I initially thought they were the same thing. A learning outcome is an overall goal you want your students to understand by the end of the grade or unit plan. A learning objective is a goal you want your students to know by the end of the lesson. I have also learned there could be different kinds of objectives. The textbook states, "Objectives may be in the cognitive, affective, psychomotor or interpersonal domains." I have also learned a lot about performance objectives. The textbook states, "performance objectives are designed to measure the knowledge, skills, abilities, and achievement of the student. This type of objective relates closely to, but not only to, specific test items which are based upon learning objectives." I have also learned about the best way to create objectives which are known as the ABCD model. The textbook states, "The "A" is for the audience also known as "the student. The "B" is for behavior, also known as "information used in research" The "C" is for the condition, which means "given a graphic organizer or map." and "D" is known as Degree, which is presumed to have 100% accuracy."
Cognitive Domain
Chapter four also explains the cognitive domain. The text states, “Activities involving the acquisition and use of information and ideas are cognitive instructional objectives. There are two basic kinds of cognitive objectives: those that require lower levels of thinking and those that require higher levels of thinking. Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain1 is a familiar way for teachers to use to identify lower and higher levels of cognitive objectives.” Bloom’s taxonomy uses lower, middle, and higher levels of cognitive thinking. An example of lower-level thinking is knowledge, also known as recall, and comprehension, also known as understanding. Middle-level thinking involves application and analysis, and higher-level thinking involves synthesis and evaluation.
Affective Domain
I have also learned about the affective domain. The textbook states, “Cognitive objectives deal primarily with information and ideas and are usually the primary focus of teaching activities. Affective objectives consider the feelings and attitudes of students as they learn. These student attitudes and feelings may be more important in determining a student’s behavior and attitude toward learning than cognitive information.” There are different levels of the affective domain. These levels are receiving, responding and valuing. The textbook defines receiving as “getting, holding and directing the attention of students.” The textbook defines responding “as students have opportunities to learn about new ideas and information in a variety of ways, active participation is solicited. This is usually measured by the students’ feelings toward the idea or concept.” The textbook defines valuing as “if students are committed to an idea or concept, their behavior provides an important indicator of the level of that commitment.” The textbook also explains that “Social and emotional learning helps teachers to focus on meeting students affective needs and developing positive attitudes towards peers and toward learning. Social and emotional learning strategies can help students learn to resolve conflicts and make responsible decisions.”
The Psychomotor Domain
The textbook states, "Psychomotor objectives are related to physical movement or physical skills. These objectives might relate to physical education, the arts, vocational technical training, special education physical skills or any motor skill activity. Early childhood educators emphasized the importance of psychomotor objectives that are especially important to young learners." There are various types of psychomotor objectives. These objectives are basic movements, perceptual abilities, physical abilities, skilled movements, and non-discursive communication. The textbook then gives an example for each of these objectives. The example as stated in the textbook for basic movements is "Students will walk quietly in a line to the lunchroom." The example as stated in the textbook for perceptual abilities is "Students will hear a musical note and point to that note on a musical scale." The textbook explains that the example for physical abilities and skilled movements are "Students will run around the gym two times in one minute." and "Students will be able to throw a baseball using the correct technique." respectively. And the textbook gives one final example for non-discursive communication. This example, as stated in the textbook, is "Students will portray a body stance and facial expression that indicates sadness."
Interpersonal Objectives
For this portion of chapter four, the textbook states, “Interpersonal objectives may focus on opportunities for students to acquire and practice social and communication skills.2 These skills are important for success in all aspects of the students’ lives.” The textbook also gives examples of social skills and communication skills as well as interpersonal objectives.
Examples of social skills as listed in the text are:
- Being kind
- Being respectful
- Saying please and thank you
- Staying on task
- Encouraging others
- Disagreeing constructively
- Making eye contact with others
- Making sure everyone is included
- Keeping hands and feet controlled
Examples of communication skills as listed in the text are:
- Actively listening to others
- Using appropriate voice levels
- Positive nonverbal behaviors
- Asking questions
- Clarifying instructions
- Repeating ideas of others
- Brainstorming ideas
- Giving reasons for ideas and feelings
- Identifying areas of agreement
The text also explains that examples of interpersonal objectives include social skills, communication skills, and conflict management. An example of social skills, as stated in the text, is “Students will contribute ideas to help the group complete its task.” The example for communication skills as stated in the text is “Students will use six inch voices when communicating with other members of their group.” and the example for conflict management as stated in the text is “Students will role play effective and ineffective ways of disagreeing with other group members.”
Task Analysis
When I think of task analysis, I think of breaking something big into more manageable smaller pieces of work. The textbook explains the five steps to task analysis. The steps as listed in the textbook are:
- The teacher selects an instructional objective appropriate for a group of students or the entire class. This selection is based upon the teacher’s diagnosis of student readiness and the expectations of the school district for the subject area and grade level.
- The teacher determines the critical objective’s attributes which will be demonstrated by a student performance. The performance usually involves higher levels of cognition for long-term learning and understanding.
- The teacher determines the beginning level knowledge, skills, or competencies, if any, that students need to have in order to begin working productively on the objective.
- The teacher identifies the new learning which needs to take place in order for the students to achieve the instructional objective.
- The teacher sequences the new learning for efficient mastery by students.
The textbook defines task analysis as “Task analysis is the process of selecting and sequencing instructional objectives appropriately. The quality of the task analysis can help to determine how effective the learning experience is for students. While some objectives are simple, others require mastery of prerequisite skills. Analyzing the objective helps the teacher to define critical attributes and prerequisite knowledge and skills.”
Lesson Planning
The section about lesson planning was very interesting. The textbook states, “After the teacher determines what will be taught by analyzing educational goals and developing appropriate objectives for student learning, then he or she must decide how the content will be taught. Teachers can plan effectively and efficiently by using components of lesson design. Many of these components are associated with Madeline Hunter’s lesson plan design.1 Although every component of lesson planning will not always be used, it is important for the teacher to consider each step as they plan for instruction.”
The first step to lesson planning is the “hook” or pre-assessment. It is used to determine if students have any background information about a topic before you begin teaching it. Pre-assessments could be question and answer activities, matching activities, true and false activities, or even a short quiz. Based on how students to respond helps a teacher realize the best way to teach the topic she or he wants his students to learn.
The next step is explaining to the students what the teacher wants them to understand by the end of the lesson. It is the end goal of the lesson, also known as the objective.
The next step is known as input and modeling. The textbook explains that input “Input involves the presentation of information to students and is characterized by effectively organizing and communicating the information. The process of task analysis, described earlier in this chapter, helps the teacher to sequence the lesson appropriately.” and the textbook explains that modeling “is showing the students how by demonstrating the steps in the learning and providing visual examples of the learning. When modeling, it may be helpful for the teacher to share the thought process behind what he or she is doing.”
The next step is the check for understanding step. It is a step where the teachers can determine how much information the student understands what she or he is teaching them. It is a way for teachers to determine what the students are being taught. The textbook explains examples of check for understanding activities. The text states, “There are many effective strategies that can be used to check for student understanding. Every pupil responses such as hand signals, marker boards, thumbs up/down, and the use of electronic clickers are examples of ways to quickly and accurately evaluate all students’ understanding of a concept while keeping the students actively engaged.”
The next step is guided practice. This is where the teacher gives students activities but guides them on how to complete these activities. The text states, “Guided practice provides opportunities for the students to work on activities related to the learning while the teacher is available to assist the students and provide feedback. “
Next comes independent practice. This is a stage in the lesson where students practice what they have learned by themselves without the teacher’s help.
Finally, there is the closure section of the lesson. This is where the teacher wraps everything up. it is a final way to check for understanding the text states, “This information can be used by the teacher to plan what to do during the next instructional period, to identify student groups for remediation or enrichment, and to determine if the students are ready to practice independently.”
Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated instruction is individual instruction used to meet the specific needs of one particular student. The text states, " Differentiated instruction is the process of providing students with different avenues to achieve learning objectives and goals. Teachers must consider not only what they teach, but also be aware that how they teach is even more important.1" The text also states, "When differentiated instruction is used, the objectives and goals maybe the same for each student, but what will be different is how the student achieves mastery of the objective. Instruction can be differentiated in three major ways: content, process, and product."
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